How to Make a Dictionary, Session 5, Tuesday 2006-11 –14
...................Lexical databases
Semasiological Dictionaries:Their basic form is a
TABLE that consists of
ROWS and
COLUMNS!
→ The
ROWS contain lexical entries with their specific microstructure
....(their deep structure: they all have the same length!)
→ The
COLUMNS represent single types of lexical information
If the orthography or phonology of a lexical item is ambiguous (homography/ homophony),
the item may be repeated with the new/specific information or represented in a
supplementary sub-table.
Exercise: To understand what a database basically is, create a simple table:
CD.................Name .................Artist............... Publishing DateSingle
............ Mi PIACI
..............Alex Britts
.........1999
Album
...........ABBA LIVE
..........ABBA
................1986
Tables and table models that serve as a basis for dictionary entries consist of a list of rows (a list of fields) and columns (a list of fields in the same row position):
Tables can be created with the help of computer programs such as MS-Word, Open-Office,
MS-Excel or HTML table model.
All these computer programs contain table models that can be edited and changed on the basis of the lexicographers needs.
How to Make a Dictionary, Session 4, Tuesday 2006-11 -07
The Architecture of a DictionaryMetadata: Is the catalogue of information on the production of a dictionary
..................(author, publishing house etc.).
..................It is intended for the identification of a specific dictionary.
Examples of metadata from different kinds of dictionaries:(1) Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary (Monolingual Dictionary):
Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current English, AS Hornby, Fifth Edition, Editor: Jonathan Crowther, Assistant Editor: Kathryn Kavanagh, Phonetics Editor: Michael Ashby, Oxford University Press, 1995,
ISBN 3 464 11 223 3
(2) PONS Handwörterbuch für die berufliche Praxis Französisch- Deutsch, Deutsch- Französisch (Bilingual Dictionary):PONS Handwörterbuch für die berufliche Praxis Französisch- Deutsch, Deutsch- Französisch (Bilingual Dictionary), Ernst Klett Verlag GmbH, Stuttgart 2002, 1. Auflage 2000- Nachdruck 2002, Redaktion Barbara Krüger, Printed in France, ISBN 3 12 517580 1
(3) Thematischer Grund- und Aufbauwortschatz FranzösischThematischer Grund- und Aufbauwortschatz Französisch, Professor Wolfgang Fischer und Anne-Marie Le Plouhinec, Sinelfingen, Ernst Klett Verlag GmbH, Stuttgart 2000, ISBN 3 12 519512 8
Create definitions by nearest kind and specific differences for:Hip-hop: a type of dance music similar to rap, originated in the USA.
→ Hip hop is a kind of dance music similar to rap.
...........↑
....................... ↑
............................↑
definiendum
...genus proximum
.....differentia specifica
Lasagna: Pasta made in broad flat strips.
→ Lasagna is a kind of Pasta made in broad flat strips.
...........↑
......................↑
.................................↑
definiendum
... genus proximum
.........differentia specifica
Organisation of Lexical Information
Today, we talked about the different parts of a dictionary which consist of:
- Megastructure
- Macrostructure
- Mesostructure
- Microstrucure(1) The
MEGASTRUCURE of a dictionary is the entire structure of the dictionary, including the front matter, abbreviations of grammar, the body of the dictionary, the back matter.
Example: OXFORD Advanced Learner’s Dictionary
- Includes: Metadata information! For example:
..Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current English, AS Hornby, Fifth
..Edition, Editor: Jonathan Crowther, Assistant Editor: Kathryn Kavanagh, Phonetics Editor:
..Michael Ashby, Oxford University Press, 1995, ISBN 3 464 11 223 3.
- Preface, Key to dictionary entries explaining the structure of entries.
- Using your dictionary: Table of contents, information about the structure of entries,
..cross-references, irregular forms, phonetics, abbreviations, symbols and labels used in the dictionary,
..grammar and syntax pages, body of the dictionary (lexical entry pages, list of words).
- Front/ back pages and the cover of the dictionary
(2) The
MACROSTRUCTURE of a dictionary is the organisation of the lexical entries in the body of a dictionary into lists, tree structures, networks.
Semasiological and onomasiological dictionaries have got different types of macrostructure:Whereas the macrostructure (body) of a
semasiological dictionary (reader’s dictionary, decoding dictionary) consists of a list of entries,
an
onomasiological dictionary (writer’s dictionary, encoding dictionary) contains a tree structure or a network of entries!
A semasiological dictionary consists of a list of words arranged in an alphabetic order.
An onomasiological dictionary (for instance: an dictionary of synonyms) is arranged in order to the meaning of the entries.
(3) The
MESOSTRUCTURE of a dictionary is the set of relations between lexical entries and other entities such as other parts of a dictionary or a text corpus.
In this context, lexical entries can relate to each other.
Their relation is indicated by the use of capital letters or bold print:
For example:
Hip-hop: a type of dance music similar to RAP, originated in the USA.
The capital letter writing of RAP indicates that this lexical entry may also be found in the body of the dictionary (cross-reference).
The technique of capital letter writing, bold/italic print or change of font provides the reader with supplementary information on the structure and contend of the text body. Cross-references may relate different entries such as co-hyponyms, synonyms or antonyms.
Some dictionaries also relate lexical entries to a separate mini-grammar in the megastructure of the dictionary. In the Advanced Learner’s Dictionary, the reader may find specific advice like: For more help with verbs, see study pages B 4-8 at the bottom of each page.
The mesostructure of a lexicon or dictionary also consists of a class hierarchy of DATCAT subvectors such as modality, grammar or object semantics:
................MODALITY
.................................................GRAMMAR ...........................................CORPUS
..................↑
.......↑
..........................................↑
......↑
.............↑
..........↑ .....................................↑
ID;Orthography;Pronunciation;POS (Part of speech);Gender;Morphology;Inflection;Definition;Instance (Context)
↓
.................................................................................................................................↓
..........................................................CROSS- REFERENCES
....I__________________________________________________________________I
.....................................MINI- GRAMMAR/ LINGUISTIC DESCRIPTION
Example:1; table; /teIbl/; n; n; e (sing); n; A piece of furniture consisting of a flat top supported on one ore more legs; Sit at the table;
(4) The
MICROSTRUCTURE of a dictionary is the consistent organisation of lexical information within lexical entries in the dictionary. The combined structure of microstructure and macrostructure of a semasiological dictionary can be defined as a hierarchical list structure.
The lexical entries that are arranged as a list (rows) are followed by different columns:
For example:
Lexical entry (ID); Orthography; Phonetic transcription; Etymology; Model; Embedded example; Translation
→ Specific dictionaries chose specific columns to produce/ differentiate different kinds of
....dictionaries!
For example: An etymological dictionary has to include a column specifying the etymology of a word whereas this specification is not necessary in bilingual dictionaries that do not focus on the origin of words, but on their translation into a specific language.
From the microstructural point of view, words contain three different properties that can be divided into small linguistic units (branches of linguistic studies):
........................Pragmatics (use of words in a certain context in terms of speech acts)
MEANING
........................Semantics (refers to the truth/falsity of sentences)
........................Syntax: Text, Phrase
STRUCTURE........................Morphology: Inflexion, Word formation
(study of how words fit into a sentence; for example: valence of verbs, use of affixes)
APPEARANCE FORM: Pronunciation (Phonetics), Orthography (spoken/written language)
There are
5 types of lexical information to each lexical entry:
- model
- symbols: pictures
- synonyms/ antonyms
- translation
- etymological information
How to Make a Dictionary, Session 3, Tuesday 2006-10-31
Defining “definition”
What are the main kinds of information in a dictionary?
Types of lexical information in dictionary entries:
1. FORM (c.f. appearance): Information on the spelling and pronunciation of an entry.
2. STRUCTURE (c.f. formulation): Information on the construction of words, on their place
in sentences and larger constructions.
3. CONTENT (c.f. meaning): Practical information in form of definitions, relations of
words and examples
Another type of information one may find in a dictionary is the METADATA, a list of information about the production of the dictionary. Information on the author and publishing house may be useful for dictionary identification.
Defining “definition” and explanation”→The difference between a definition and an explanationA
definition is: A statement giving the exact meaning of a word or phrase;
definitions of the type
definiens, definiendum are given in dictionaries
An
explanation is: The action or process of explaining s.th.; a statement, fact, circumstance
that explains s.th.; explanations are used in encyclopaedias
What is the kind of information which dictionary users are generally interested in?A standard dictionary definition consists of a definition by the nearest kind and its specific differences. To describe the nearest kind and the specific differences we use the Latin terminology of
genus proximum and
differentia specifica:
.......X....... is a
.......... Y......... kind of
..... Z....... ↑
....................... ↑
......................... ↑
definiendum differentia specifica genus proximumFor example:
Baby: a
very young child, especially one who has not yet learned to speak or walk
...................↑...............↑differentia specifica genus proximum
to babble: to say or talk quickly and foolishly or in a way that is hard to understand
Modification: → to babble is a
quickly and foolish kind of
talk..............................↑
........................ ↑
........................ ...↑.............................X
.........Y (differentia specifica)
.......Z (genus proximum)
Find definitions of 5 different words of different parts of speech and
- give examples of genus proximum and differentia specifica
- give examples of other kinds of definition
*legend: -
italic: genus proximum
.............-bold italic: differentia specifica(1) Noundonkey: an
animal of the
horse family with
short legs and
long ears.
......................↑
....................↑
...genus proximum
.....differentia specifica
(2) Verb....genus proximum
...differentia specifica
...............↑
...................... ↑
run: to
move at a
speed faster than a walk, never having both or all the feet on the ground at the same time.
(3) Personal PronounI: pers pron (used as the subject of a v)
the person who is the speaker or writer.
.........↑
.......................................................................... ↑
genus proximum
.................................................differentia specifica
(4) Demonstrative Pronoun............genus proximum
.......................................................differentia specifica
........................↑
.............................................................................. ...↑
this: is used to
refer to a person, a thing, a place or an event that is
close to the speaker or writer, especially when compared with another.
(5) Conjunction.....................genus proximum
........................differentia specifica
.................................↑
............................................... ↑
but: often used to
introduce a word or phrase
contrasting with or qualifing what has gone before.
(6) Adjectiveblack: of the very
darkest colour; the opposite of white.
................................↑
..........↑
..........differentia specifica
.genus proximum
(7) AdverbHappily: adv in a
satisfied and contend way.
.................↑
............... ↑
genus proximum differentia specifica
Other kinds of definition:
(1) Ostensive definition→ to define a word by showing/ demonstrating
circle: this is a circle → O
(2) Contextual definition→ to explain something by putting words into a context, to show how to use a word in a
::::context
pet: An animal or a bird kept as a companion and treated with care and affection:
::::::::They have many pets, including three cats.
(3) Recursive definition→ a definition that refers to itself and defines a indefinite number of things. It consists of a base condition,
....recursive condition and an exclusive condition:
ancestor: a parent or parent of an ancestor
.....................↑
...................↑
........base condition
....... recursive condition
exclusive condition: nothing else but an ancestor
(4) Model→ an illustration that is supposed to show a simplified representation of the reality
....for example: a drawing of a human being as a symbol of a segment of reality
How to Make a Dictionary, Session 2, Tuesday 2006-10-24
Dictionaries in General
What is the difference between a semasiological dictionary and an onomasiological dictionary?
A semasiological dictionary is also called reader’s dictionary or decoding dictionary.
A learner may use a semasiological dictionary if he searches for the meaning of a word whose form (spelling) is known.
An onomasiological dictionary is a so called writer’s or encoding dictionary.
It presents a list of synonyms which are arranged in a kind of tree structure. A learner uses an onomasiological dictionary when he already knows the meaning of a word and searches for its correct spelling.
What kinds of dictionaries do you have?
A questionnaire about dictionaries has been shown to three different people:
(1) What kind of dictionary do you have?
Person 1 (a student of English and French):
Has got monolingual, bilingual and multilingual dictionaries:
Bilingual dictionaries:English-German, German-English
French-German, German-French (2x)
Spanish-German, German-Spanish
Portuguese-German, German-Portuguese
Latin-German
Monolingual dictionaries:English
French (2x)
German
Bilingual pocket dictionaries:English-German
French-German
Latin-German
One multilingual dictionary:German-English-French-Spanish
Theme field dictionary:French-German
Others:Dictionary of French Literature
Dictionary of French Authors
Dictionary of French Kings and Queens
Dictionary of Symbols
Dictionary of Names
Vocabulary Notebook
Person 2 (a trainee)
Has got bilingual and monolingual dictionaries:
Bilingual dictionaries:English-German, German-English
Latin-German
Monolingual dictionaries:English
German (3x)
Others:Vocabulary Notebook
Person 3 (a trainee)
Has only bilingual dictionaries:
Bilingual dictionaries:English-German, German-English
French-German, German-French
Spanish-German, German-Spanish
Dutch-German, German-Dutch
Theme field dictionary:French-German
Others:Vocabulary Notebook
Basic Vocabulary lists (French, Spanish)
Basic Verb list (French, Spanish)
(2) Do you own a dictionary or do you borrow it?Person 1: Owns the dictionaries mentioned in answer (1) and borrows
supplementary dictionaries from the university library.
Person 2: Owns the dictionaries mentioned in answer (1) and seldom borrows
dictionaries from the public library.
Person 3: Owns the dictionaries mentioned in answer (1) and never borrows any
dictionaries
(3) Do you use an online dictionary or do you prefer books?Person 1: Also uses electronic dictionaries of: German-English, English-German
German-French, French-German, German-Spanish, Spanish-German.
At home the person prefers online dictionaries, because words can be looked up
faster. But written dictionaries (books) often are more exact.
Person 2: Does not use electronic dictionaries.
Person 3: Does not use electronic dictionaries.
(4) What kind of dictionary would you recommend?Person 1: The most popular dictionaries
For English: Oxford (f.ex. the Advanced Learner’s Dictionary)
For French: Le petit Robert, Hachette,
For German, Latin: Duden, Pons, Langenscheidt
Person 2: Bilingual dictionaries.
Person 3: Would recommend Langenscheidt dictionaries.
(5) How would you find the “best” English dictionary?
Person 1: There is no “best English dictionary”. The choice of a specific dictionary
depends on the learner’s needs, language skills and field of study.
Person 2: A good dictionary contains a lot of lexical entries, synonyms, definitions and
explanations, examples and notes on grammar (Maximising dictionaries).
Person 3: Does only know Langenscheidt dictionaries.
