TYPES OF LEXICAL INFORMATION:
FOCUS ON SEMANTICS, THE STUDY OF MEANING
SEMANTICS is the study of MEANING in the sense of linguistic forms and interpretation of signs.
Revision: Main types of a definition
A definition generally consists of two parts: a definiendum (which has to be defined) and a definiens (an actual definition that consists of genus proximum and differentia specifica)
Other types of definitions:
-Componential definition
splits the meaning of a lexical item into components
e.g. standard dictionary definition by genus proximum and differentia specifica
-Syntagmatic definition
contextual definition (illustrates the meaning in a larger context with similar and different words) : definition by text examples
-Paradigmatic definitions (typical of onomasiological dictionaries, Thesaurus)
present world fields (e.g. in a thesaurus, synonym dictionary)
and give semantic relations: - hyponyms, hyperonyms
------------------------------ co- hyponyms: synonyms, antonyms
ANALYSING A CORPUS
For example: on Poodles
A Poodle hybrid is a cross (hybrid) between a Poodle and some other breed of dog.
Poodle hybrids have become very popular as pets.
They play a big role in the current designer dog trend.
The Poodle’s nonshedding coat is the usual impetus behind such experimentation, where potential pet owners are looking for a nonsehdding version of a breed for health or hygienic reasons.
Some of these crosses have been developed deliberately, while others have happened accidentally.
Definitions for a small number of words from these texts:
Poodle: /’pu:dl/ n a breed of do with thick curling hair which is often cut into an elaborate patter.
hybrid: /’haIbrId/ n an animal or a plant that has parents of different species or varieties: A mule is a hybrid of a male donkey and a female horse.
breed: /bri:d/ n a particular type of animal or plant. Its members have a similar appearance and are usually developed by deliberate selection.
pet: --/pet/ n an animal or a bird kept as a companion and treated with care and affection.
Antonyms to a number of words from these texts:
Antonyms in the text: ------deliberately vs. accidentally
Supplementary antonyms: Poodle vs. Terrier
---------------------------------hybrid vs. pure bred
---------------------------------pet vs. beast/ brute
* Annotation on antonyms: there are different kinds of antonyms:
There are antonyms that have got opposite meanings: simple opposites of the scheme:
either...or
and complementary opposites where you cannot decide whether there is an either... or
relation!
You cannot say what is the opposite of a poodle, for instance, because there is a
whole set of possible opposites!
Inversive opposites are antonyms of the type of relation:
-parent/ child
-father/ son
-to buy/ to sell (one buys, the other sells)
Synonyms in the text: hybrid ↔ cross
Semantic word field: a set of related words
Related words: hybrid, cross, breed, designer dog
Poodle (specific term), dog (more general term), pet (most general term)
--↑--------------------------- ↑ ------------------------↑
hyponym ---------------hyperonym --------------hyperonym
REVISION: MICROSTRUCTURE
The lexicon microstructure contains the properties of lexical entries such as types of lexical information and lexical data categories (DATCATS).
Properties of words as lexical items are MODALITY/ APPEARANCE which can be realised orthographic (written language) and phonemic (spoken language, broad transcription), STRUCTURE that operates on an internal (morphology) and an external (syntax) level and last but not least:
MEANING (semantics: signified ↔ signifier).
MODEL: TYPES OF LEXICAL INFORMATION
------------------------------------------MEANING
------------------------------------------CONTENT
------------------------------------------(Semantics, Pragmatics)
-----------------------------------↔
STRUCTURE ---------------------------------↨
(Organisation, syntax)------------------------
-------------------------------------------MODALITY
-----------------------------------↔ -----APPEARANCE
-------------------------------------------RENDERING
MICROSTRUCTURE: INFORMATION TYPES
Modality, appearance, ---Structure --------------------------Meaning
form
___________-- ________________ --------___________________________________________
Spelling ---------Pronun---Internal -----External ----.-Components ------------Word fields,
--------------------Ciation ---(Morphology) -(POS) ----------------------------------relations
_____ ---------____---- ---_____ -------______ -----_______________ -----________________
Poodle --------pu:dl -------------- ----------noun --------dog with a haircut ------antonym: terrier...
----------------------------------------------------↓ -------------------------↓
------------------------------------------------LEXICAL --------------SEMANTICS
REVISION: Define definition
A standard dictionary definition consists of two main elements:
→ X is a Y kind of Z
Definitio per genus proximum and differentia specifica, which means: definition by the nearest kind and specific differences!
The definition consists of two parts: the definiendum and the definiens!
The definiendum is the word that has to be defined. The definiens is some kind of explanation that consists of a definition via genus proximum and differentia specifica.
The definiens can emerge in the form of a list of examples, a sample text corpus, a model (picture: ostensive definition) or a real example.
Examples (DCE 1987)
babble: so say or talk quickly and foolishly or in a way that is hard to understand.
→ Definiendum: babble
→ Definiens: definition via genus proximum and differentia specifica
baby: a very young child, especially one who has not yet learned to speak or walk
→ Definiendum: baby
→ Definiens: definition via genus proximum and differentia specifica
bad: not good; unpleasant, unwanted, or unacceptable
→ Definiendum: bad
→ Definiens: by giving a list co- hyponyms, specifically of synonyms
blue: of the colour of the sky or of the deep sea on a fine day
→ Definiendum: blue
→ Definiens: an example of several objects of the defined colour
The genus proximum is also a superordinate term to the definiendum.
It can therefore be defined as a hyperonym.
The definiendum is a subordinate term, a hyponym.
Hyperonyms and hyponyms can be arranged in a hierarchy, a tree structure of terms.
Such a tree structure is called a TAXONOMY.
It contains a generalisation- specialisation relation, paradigmatic relation.
In semasiological dictionaries paradigmatic relations are often expressed in terms of hyponym- hyperonym relations (definiendum and its genus proximum), but they also work with
CO- HYPONYMS (synonyms or antonyms).
The whole part relation of the previous possible syntagmatic relations is called MERONOMY. A meronomy defines a syntagmatic hierarchy, how to built up larger units from smaller units.
Example of a TAXONOMY (relations of hyponyms and hyperonyms)
....
↑
living creature
↑
animal
↑
dog
↑
poodle
Conclusion from this specific kind of taxonomy: a poodle is an animal/ a living creature
Taxonomies are used in many contexts:
In traditional lexicography they are:
-cross- references in standard definitions
-thesaurus construction
In Artificial Intelligence and Text Technology they are used in:
ISA hierarchies (inheritance hierarchies)
Ontologies
In theories of the lexicon they define:
-type hierarchies (e.g. Head-driven Phrase Structure Grammar [HPSG]
-default hierarchies (e.g. ILEX theory; DATR implementations)
Example of a text that contains semantic components, relations, fields and definitions.
GINGER BEER
Fermentation has been used by mankind for thousands of years for raising bread, fermenting wine and brewing beer.
The products of the fermentation of sugar by baker’s yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae (a fungus) are ethyl alcohol and carbon dioxide.
Carbon dioxide causes bread to rise and gives effervescent drinks their bubbles.
This action of yeast on sugar is used to "carbonate" beverages, as in the addition of bubbles to champagne).
Semantic/ paradigmatic relations:
Co- hyponyms: Synonyms: Saccharomyces cerevisiar ↔ fungus
----------------------------Raising, fermenting, brewing, rise
Hyperonym, hyponym: ----Fungus ← yeast
Semantic fields (co- hyponyms): wine, beer, champagne, alcohol, product, beverages
Definitions
Fermentation: ---Sugar is converted into alcohol through the process of fermentation.
Product: ---------A thing that is grown or produced, usually for sale.
Fungus, pl. fungi: any of various types of plant without leaves or flowers and containing no ------------------green colouring. Fungi usually grow on other plants or on decaying matter. ------------------Mildew and mushrooms are examples of fungi.
Bubble: ----------A floating ball formed of liquid and containing air or gas.
Carbon dioxide: -The gas breathed out by people and animals from the lungs or produced by ------------------burning carbon.
Yeast: -----------A type of fungus used in making beer or wine, or to make bread rise.
posted by Melanie Zahn @ 5:32 AM
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